The following information is used for educational purposes only.
The Social Media Threat to Society and Security
Feb 14, 2018
GEORGE SOROS
It takes significant effort to assert and defend what John Stuart Mill called the freedom of mind. And there is a real chance that, once lost, those who grow up in the digital age – in which the power to command and shape people’s attention is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few companies – will have difficulty regaining it.
MUNICH – The current moment in world history is a painful one. Open societies are in crisis, and various forms of dictatorships and mafia states, exemplified by Vladimir Putin’s Russia, are on the rise. In the United States, President Donald Trump would like to establish his own mafia-style state but cannot, because the Constitution, other institutions, and a vibrant civil society won’t allow it.
Not only is the survival of open society in question; the survival of our entire civilization is at stake. The rise of leaders such as Kim Jong-un in North Korea and Trump in the US have much to do with this. Both seem willing to risk a nuclear war in order to keep themselves in power. But the root cause goes even deeper. Mankind’s ability to harness the forces of nature, both for constructive and destructive purposes, continues to grow, while our ability to govern ourselves properly fluctuates, and is now at a low ebb.
The rise and monopolistic behavior of the giant American Internet platform companies is contributing mightily to the US government’s impotence. These companies have often played an innovative and liberating role. But as Facebook and Google have grown ever more powerful, they have become obstacles to innovation, and have caused a variety of problems of which we are only now beginning to become aware.
Companies earn their profits by exploiting their environment. Mining and oil companies exploit the physical environment; social media companies exploit the social environment. This is particularly nefarious, because these companies influence how people think and behave without them even being aware of it. This interferes with the functioning of democracy and the integrity of elections.
Because Internet platform companies are networks, they enjoy rising marginal returns, which accounts for their phenomenal growth. The network effect is truly unprecedented and transformative, but it is also unsustainable. It took Facebook eight and a half years to reach a billion users, and half that time to reach the second billion. At this rate, Facebook will run out of people to convert in less than three years.
Facebook and Google effectively control over half of all digital advertising revenue. To maintain their dominance, they need to expand their networks and increase their share of users’ attention. Currently they do this by providing users with a convenient platform. The more time users spend on the platform, the more valuable they become to the companies.
Moreover, because content providers cannot avoid using the platforms and must accept whatever terms they are offered, they, too, contribute to the profits of social media companies. Indeed, the exceptional profitability of these companies is largely a function of their avoiding responsibility – and payment – for the content on their platforms.
The companies claim that they are merely distributing information. But the fact that they are near-monopoly distributors makes them public utilities and should subject them to more stringent regulation, aimed at preserving competition, innovation, and fair and open access.
Social media companies’ true customers are their advertisers. But a new business model is gradually emerging, based not only on advertising but also on selling products and services directly to users. They exploit the data they control, bundle the services they offer, and use discriminatory pricing to keep more of the benefits that they would otherwise have to share with consumers. This enhances their profitability even further, but the bundling of services and discriminatory pricing undermine the efficiency of the market economy.
Social media companies deceive their users by manipulating their attention, directing it toward their own commercial purposes, and deliberately engineering addiction to the services they provide. This can be very harmful, particularly for adolescents.
There is a similarity between Internet platforms and gambling companies. Casinos have developed techniques to hook customers to the point that they gamble away all of their money, even money they don’t have.
Something similar – and potentially irreversible – is happening to human attention in our digital age. This is not a matter of mere distraction or addiction; social media companies are actually inducing people to surrender their autonomy. And this power to shape people’s attention is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few companies.
It takes significant effort to assert and defend what John Stuart Mill called the freedom of mind. Once lost, those who grow up in the digital age may have difficulty regaining it.
This would have far-reaching political consequences. People without the freedom of mind can be easily manipulated. This danger does not loom only in the future; it already played an important role in the 2016 US presidential election.
There is an even more alarming prospect on the horizon: an alliance between authoritarian states and large, data-rich IT monopolies, bringing together nascent systems of corporate surveillance with already-developed systems of state-sponsored surveillance. This may well result in a web of totalitarian control the likes of which not even George Orwell could have imagined.
The countries in which such unholy marriages are likely to occur first are Russia and China. Chinese IT companies in particular are fully equal to the US platforms. They also enjoy the full support and protection of President Xi Jinping’s regime. China’s government is strong enough to protect its national champions, at least within its borders.
US-based IT monopolies are already tempted to compromise themselves in order to gain entrance to these vast and fast-growing markets. These countries’ dictatorial leaders may be only too happy to collaborate with them, in the interest of improving their methods of control over their own populations and expanding their power and influence in the United States and the rest of the world.
There is also a growing recognition of a connection between the dominance of the platform monopolies and rising inequality. The concentration of share ownership in the hands of a few individuals plays some role, but the peculiar position occupied by the IT giants is even more important. They have achieved monopoly power while also competing against one another. Only they are big enough to swallow start-ups that could develop into competitors, and only they have the resources to invade one another’s territory.
The owners of the platform giants consider themselves the masters of the universe. In fact, they are slaves to preserving their dominant position. They are engaged in an existential struggle to dominate the new growth areas that artificial intelligence is opening up, like driverless cars.
The impact of such innovations on unemployment depends on government policies. The European Union, and particularly the Nordic countries, are much more farsighted than the United States in their social policies. They protect the workers, not the jobs. They are willing to pay for retraining or retiring displaced workers. This gives workers in Nordic countries a greater sense of security and makes them more supportive of technological innovations than workers in the US.
The Internet monopolies have neither the will nor the inclination to protect society against the consequences of their actions. That turns them into a public menace, and it is the regulatory authorities’ responsibility to protect society against them. In the US, regulators are not strong enough to stand up to the monopolies’ political influence. The EU is better positioned, because it doesn’t have any platform giants of its own.
The EU uses a different definition of monopoly power from the US. Whereas US law enforcement focuses primarily on monopolies created by acquisition, EU law prohibits the abuse of monopoly power regardless of how it is achieved. Europe has much stronger privacy and data protection laws than America.
Moreover, US law has adopted a strange doctrine that measures harm as an increase in the price paid by customers for services received. But that is almost impossible to prove, given that most giant Internet platforms provide a majority of their services for free. Moreover, the doctrine leaves out of consideration the valuable data that platform companies collect from their users.
The EU Commissioner for Competition Margrethe Vestager is the champion of the European approach. It took the EU seven years to build a case against Google. But, as a result of its success, the process of instituting adequate regulation has been greatly accelerated. Moreover, thanks to Vestager’s efforts, the European approach has begun to affect attitudes in the US.
It is only a matter of time before the global dominance of the US Internet companies is broken. Regulation and taxation, spearheaded by Vestager, will be their undoing.
George Soros is Chairman of Soros Fund Management and Chairman of the Open Society Foundations. A pioneer of the hedge-fund industry, he is the author of many books, including The Alchemy of Finance, The New Paradigm for Financial Markets: The Credit Crisis of 2008 and What it Means, and The Tragedy of the European Union.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/bigpicture/big-tech-fail-1
Wednesday, April 4, 2018
TECH/BUS/GINT-Should Tech Companies Be More Tightly Regulated? by SIMON JOHNSON
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
Should Tech Companies Be More Tightly Regulated?
Mar 30, 2018
SIMON JOHNSON
In the wake of recent high-tech mishaps, do we really need to establish new regulatory principles and agencies to manage emerging risks? While the European Union certainly seems to think so, following its lead could be a costly mistake.
WASHINGTON, DC – In the wake of recent high-profile tech scares, such as a fatality involving an Uber self-driving car and Facebook’s alleged mishandling of users’ personal data, stricter regulation of the industry – along the lines of, say, the financial sector – has become the policy question du jour. Stock-market values for leading tech companies are down – or perhaps just becoming more volatile – in the light of such concerns.
Obviously, rules regarding motor vehicles need to be examined carefully. In the United States, this is generally a state-level decision, though the federal National Transportation Safety Board has a very good reputation for its investigations and often changes how we think about best practices. The NTSB is investigating the Uber crash and previously assessed a fatality involving a Tesla vehicle.
As for Facebook, press reports suggest that the company may have made some egregious mistakes. One hopes we will learn more about the details of its decision-making on data privacy when its chairman and CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, testifies before Congress, as he has agreed to do.
But responding with tighter regulation at the federal level seems premature, even for these specific activities – let alone for the broader tech sector.
Finance is regulated because of major potential spillover effects: bank failures can bring down the whole economy. That is why safety nets, such as deposit insurance, have been put in place. But the existence of deposit insurance creates room for abuse, in the form of excessive risk taking, because bank executives get the upside if things goes well, and any potential losses are imposed on the insurance fund. Preventing abuse and encouraging appropriate caution requires rules, and the US Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is one of the world’s best examples of how to make these work.
The world of high technology – computer hardware, software, and digital services – is very different. There is plenty of competition for hardware. If one firm gets into trouble, it will not bring down the system. Of course, some policymakers like to favor “national champions” vis-à-vis international competitors; but this raises issues that are different from regulating behavior.
Amazon is a powerful and rising company, spanning multiple activities – now including grocery stores and the delivery of fresh food. But it has plenty of competitors in this area, and existing rules and regulations (such as those covering how food is handled) seem sufficient.
Other digital-based companies, such as Google and Apple, are very strong in specific activities. But they do not exhibit the kind of monopoly pricing behavior that triggers anti-trust action by the government. And it is not clear what other kind of regulation would be helpful to customers.
The European Union is considering more regulation of digital firms, and insisting on greater care for the handling of data may make sense. But the EU also substantially missed out on the round of digital entrepreneurship that began in the 1990s, and it is not generally at the forefront of this sector currently – so few people in the US are rushing to follow its example.
To avoid misunderstanding, let me be clear: not everything is going well with regard to US government policy in this area. In particular, the impending repeal of the “net neutrality” rule by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) appears to be a major step toward favoring large incumbents and away from making it easy for digital start-ups to prosper quickly. Andy Lippman of the MIT Media Lab has a very good video explainer on this issue, which should be required viewing for policymakers (and voters).
Facebook currently looks like a special case, in the sense that network effects mean millions of people will stick with this service, regardless of how they are treated. And there may have been some misunderstanding or (allegedly) miscommunication regarding how their personal data would be treated. Facebook faces understandable political pressure to change its practices, but what it really needs is new competitors that prove they can be profitable while putting privacy first.
Cryptocurrencies reflect a growing overlap between finance and tech. It would not be a surprise if the US Securities and Exchange Commission determined that a great deal of recent money-raising activity (known as Initial Coin Offerings) in this industry actually amounts to the issuance of securities, which would trigger the application of various rules and requirements. But such a decision would not amount to new regulation – just the application of existing regulations. The principles applied by securities regulators since the 1930s remain sensible: protect investors and require sufficient disclosure of all the risks involved in an investment.
The same is true of self-driving cars. There were 40,000 road fatalities in 2016 in the US, and more than one million worldwide, according to the latest World Health Organization data. As in all previous years, human error of various kinds was responsible for most of these deaths. Reducing road fatalities is an important goal, and the growing engagement of tech companies (and competition with the established auto companies) should be welcomed, in the interest of improving road safety. Here, too, existing regulatory principles, and the agencies that apply and enforce them, should be given an opportunity to prove themselves.
Simon Johnson, a former chief economist of the IMF, is a professor at MIT Sloan, a senior fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics, and co-founder of a leading economics blog, The Baseline Scenario. He is the co-author, with James Kwak, of White House Burning: The Founding Fathers, Our National Debt, and Why It Matters to You.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/tighter-regulation-tech-companies-by-simon-johnson-2018-03
Should Tech Companies Be More Tightly Regulated?
Mar 30, 2018
SIMON JOHNSON
In the wake of recent high-tech mishaps, do we really need to establish new regulatory principles and agencies to manage emerging risks? While the European Union certainly seems to think so, following its lead could be a costly mistake.
WASHINGTON, DC – In the wake of recent high-profile tech scares, such as a fatality involving an Uber self-driving car and Facebook’s alleged mishandling of users’ personal data, stricter regulation of the industry – along the lines of, say, the financial sector – has become the policy question du jour. Stock-market values for leading tech companies are down – or perhaps just becoming more volatile – in the light of such concerns.
Obviously, rules regarding motor vehicles need to be examined carefully. In the United States, this is generally a state-level decision, though the federal National Transportation Safety Board has a very good reputation for its investigations and often changes how we think about best practices. The NTSB is investigating the Uber crash and previously assessed a fatality involving a Tesla vehicle.
As for Facebook, press reports suggest that the company may have made some egregious mistakes. One hopes we will learn more about the details of its decision-making on data privacy when its chairman and CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, testifies before Congress, as he has agreed to do.
But responding with tighter regulation at the federal level seems premature, even for these specific activities – let alone for the broader tech sector.
Finance is regulated because of major potential spillover effects: bank failures can bring down the whole economy. That is why safety nets, such as deposit insurance, have been put in place. But the existence of deposit insurance creates room for abuse, in the form of excessive risk taking, because bank executives get the upside if things goes well, and any potential losses are imposed on the insurance fund. Preventing abuse and encouraging appropriate caution requires rules, and the US Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is one of the world’s best examples of how to make these work.
The world of high technology – computer hardware, software, and digital services – is very different. There is plenty of competition for hardware. If one firm gets into trouble, it will not bring down the system. Of course, some policymakers like to favor “national champions” vis-à-vis international competitors; but this raises issues that are different from regulating behavior.
Amazon is a powerful and rising company, spanning multiple activities – now including grocery stores and the delivery of fresh food. But it has plenty of competitors in this area, and existing rules and regulations (such as those covering how food is handled) seem sufficient.
Other digital-based companies, such as Google and Apple, are very strong in specific activities. But they do not exhibit the kind of monopoly pricing behavior that triggers anti-trust action by the government. And it is not clear what other kind of regulation would be helpful to customers.
The European Union is considering more regulation of digital firms, and insisting on greater care for the handling of data may make sense. But the EU also substantially missed out on the round of digital entrepreneurship that began in the 1990s, and it is not generally at the forefront of this sector currently – so few people in the US are rushing to follow its example.
To avoid misunderstanding, let me be clear: not everything is going well with regard to US government policy in this area. In particular, the impending repeal of the “net neutrality” rule by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) appears to be a major step toward favoring large incumbents and away from making it easy for digital start-ups to prosper quickly. Andy Lippman of the MIT Media Lab has a very good video explainer on this issue, which should be required viewing for policymakers (and voters).
Facebook currently looks like a special case, in the sense that network effects mean millions of people will stick with this service, regardless of how they are treated. And there may have been some misunderstanding or (allegedly) miscommunication regarding how their personal data would be treated. Facebook faces understandable political pressure to change its practices, but what it really needs is new competitors that prove they can be profitable while putting privacy first.
Cryptocurrencies reflect a growing overlap between finance and tech. It would not be a surprise if the US Securities and Exchange Commission determined that a great deal of recent money-raising activity (known as Initial Coin Offerings) in this industry actually amounts to the issuance of securities, which would trigger the application of various rules and requirements. But such a decision would not amount to new regulation – just the application of existing regulations. The principles applied by securities regulators since the 1930s remain sensible: protect investors and require sufficient disclosure of all the risks involved in an investment.
The same is true of self-driving cars. There were 40,000 road fatalities in 2016 in the US, and more than one million worldwide, according to the latest World Health Organization data. As in all previous years, human error of various kinds was responsible for most of these deaths. Reducing road fatalities is an important goal, and the growing engagement of tech companies (and competition with the established auto companies) should be welcomed, in the interest of improving road safety. Here, too, existing regulatory principles, and the agencies that apply and enforce them, should be given an opportunity to prove themselves.
Simon Johnson, a former chief economist of the IMF, is a professor at MIT Sloan, a senior fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics, and co-founder of a leading economics blog, The Baseline Scenario. He is the co-author, with James Kwak, of White House Burning: The Founding Fathers, Our National Debt, and Why It Matters to You.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/tighter-regulation-tech-companies-by-simon-johnson-2018-03
ECON/AI/GINT-Will China Really Supplant US Economic Hegemony? by KENNETH ROGOFF
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
Will China Really Supplant US Economic Hegemony?(*)
Apr 2, 2018
KENNETH ROGOFF
As artificial intelligence reshapes the global economy, economists who once argued that China's massive population would propel it to superpower status should rethink that assumption. In fact, as the global economy reaches higher stages of development, China's labor advantage today could become a handicap tomorrow.
CAMBRIDGE – As China and the United States engage in their latest trade tussle, most economists take it as given that China will achieve global economic supremacy in the long run, no matter what happens now. After all, with four times as many people as the US, and a determined program to catch up after centuries of technological stagnation, isn’t it inevitable that China will decisively take over the mantle of economic hegemon?
I am not so sure. Many economists, including many of the same experts who see China’s huge labor force as a decisive advantage, also worry that robots and artificial intelligence will eventually take away most jobs, leaving most humans to while away their time engaged in leisure activities.
Which is it? Over the next 100 years, who takes over, Chinese workers or the robots? If robots and AI are the dominant drivers of production in the coming century, perhaps having too large a population to care for – especially one that needs to be controlled through limits on Internet and information access – will turn out to be more of a hindrance for China. The rapid aging of China’s population exacerbates the challenge.
As the rising importance of robotics and AI blunts China’s manufacturing edge, the ability to lead in technology will become more important. Here, the current trend toward higher concentration of power and control in the central government, as opposed to the private sector, could hamstring China as the global economy reaches higher stages of development.
The possibility that China might never supplant the US as the world’s economic hegemon is the flip side of the technology and inequality problem. Everyone in the West is worrying about the future of work, but in many ways it is a bigger problem for the Chinese development model than for the American one. The US needs to struggle with the problem of how to redistribute income internally, especially given highly concentrated ownership of new ideas and technology. But for China, there is the additional problem of how to extend its franchise as export superpower into the machine age.
True, it is highly unlikely that President Donald Trump’s huffing and puffing and bluffing will bring about a large-scale return of manufacturing jobs to the US. But the US has the potential to expand the size of its manufacturing base anyway, in terms of output if not jobs. After all, today’s high-tech factory floors produce far more with far fewer workers. And the robots and AI are coming not just in manufacturing and driverless cars. Robo-doctors, robo-financial advisors, and robo-lawyers are just the tip of the iceberg in machine disruption of service-sector jobs.
To be sure, China’s rise is hardly a mirage, and its heady success is not built on population size alone. India has a similar population (both around 1.3 billion people), but for now, at least, it trails far behind. Chinese leadership must be credited with doing a miraculous job of lifting hundreds of millions of people out of poverty and into the middle class.
But China’s rapid growth has been driven mostly by technology catch-up and investment. And while China, unlike the Soviet Union, has shown vastly more competence in homegrown innovation – Chinese companies are already leading the way in the next generation of 5G mobile networks – and its cyber-warfare capacity is fully on par with the US, keeping close to the cutting edge is not the same thing as defining it. China’s gains still come largely from adoption of Western technology, and in some cases, appropriation of intellectual property. Trump is hardly the first American president to complain on this score, and he is right to do so (though starting a trade war cannot be the solution).
In the economy of the twenty-first century, other factors, including rule of law, as well as access to energy, arable land, and clean water may also become increasingly important. China is following its own path and may yet prove that centralized systems can push development further and faster than anyone had imagined, far beyond simply being a growing middle-income country. But China’s global dominance is hardly the predetermined certainty that so many experts seem to assume.
Yes, the US faces vast challenges as well. For example, it must devise a way to retain dynamic technological growth while preventing excessive concentration of wealth and power. To be a hegemon, however, does not require being the world’s largest country – otherwise, England would never have ruled much of the world as it did for more than a century. China might lead the digital future if the US drops the ball, but it won’t become the dominant global power simply because it has a larger population. On the contrary, the coming machine age could be a game changer in the battle for hegemony.
Kenneth Rogoff, Professor of Economics and Public Policy at Harvard University and recipient of the 2011 Deutsche Bank Prize in Financial Economics, was the chief economist of the International Monetary Fund from 2001 to 2003. The co-author of This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly, his new book, The Curse of Cash, was released in August 2016.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/china-huge-population-may-hinder-growth-by-kenneth-rogoff-2018-04
(*) Spanish translation:
¿China realmente reemplazará la hegemonía económica de Estados Unidos?
Apr 2, 2018
KENNETH ROGOFF
CAMBRIDGE – En tanto China y Estados Unidos libran su último forcejeo comercial, la mayoría de los economistas dan por sentado que China alcanzará una supremacía económica global en el largo plazo, no importa lo que suceda ahora. Después de todo, con una población cuatro veces más grande que la de Estados Unidos, y un programa pensado para ponerse al día después de siglos de estancamiento tecnológico, ¿no es inevitable que China decididamente asuma la responsabilidad de ser una potencia económica hegemónica?
No estoy tan seguro. Muchos economistas, entre ellos muchos de los mismos expertos que ven la inmensa fuerza laboral de China como una ventaja decisiva, también temen que los robots y la inteligencia artificial terminen robándose la mayoría de los empleos, y que la mayoría de los seres humanos mate el tiempo en actividades recreativas.
¿Qué sucederá? En los próximos cien años, ¿quién tomará el poder? ¿Los trabajadores o los robots chinos? Si los robots y la IA son los motores dominantes de la producción en el próximo siglo, quizá tener una población demasiado grande de la que ocuparse -especialmente una población que necesita ser controlada a través de límites a Internet y al acceso a la información- termine siendo más bien un estorbo para China. El rápido envejecimiento de la población de China exacerba el desafío.
En tanto la creciente importancia de la robótica y la IA mitiga la ventaja industrial de China, la capacidad de liderar en el campo de la tecnología se volverá más relevante. Aquí, la tendencia actual hacia una mayor concentración del poder y del control en el gobierno central, en oposición al sector privado, podría afectar a China en tanto la economía global alcanza etapas superiores de desarrollo.
La posibilidad de que China nunca pueda reemplazar a Estados Unidos como la potencia económica hegemónica del mundo es la otra cara del problema de la tecnología y la desigualdad. Todos en Occidente temen por el futuro del trabajo, pero en muchos sentidos es un problema mayor para el modelo de desarrollo chino que para el norteamericano. Estados Unidos necesita lidiar con el problema de cómo redistribuir el ingreso internamente, especialmente considerando la propiedad altamente concentrada de las nuevas ideas y la tecnología. Pero, en el caso de China, existe el problema adicional de cómo extender su franquicia de superpotencia exportadora a la era de las máquinas.
Es verdad, es sumamente improbable que la postura bravucona del presidente Donald Trump genere un regreso masivo de empleos industriales a Estados Unidos. Pero Estados Unidos tiene el potencial de expandir el tamaño de su base industrial de todas maneras, en términos de producción si no de empleos. Después de todo, las plantas industriales de alta tecnología de hoy tienen una producción mucho mayor con muchos menos trabajadores. Y los robots y la IA inciden no sólo en la industria y en los autos sin conductor. Los robo-médicos, los robo-asesores financieros y los robo-abogados son sólo la punta del iceberg en la disrupción por parte de las máquinas de los empleos del sector de servicios.
Sin duda, difícilmente se pueda decir que el ascenso de China sea un espejismo, y su éxito vertiginoso no se basa solamente en el tamaño de la población. India tiene una población similar (ambos rondan los 1.300 millones de habitantes), pero, por ahora al menos, está mucho más rezagada. Hay que darle crédito al liderazgo chino por el trabajo milagroso de sacar a cientos de millones de personas de la pobreza e introducirlas en la clase media.
Pero el rápido crecimiento de China ha estado impulsado principalmente por un progreso y una inversión en tecnología. Y si bien China, a diferencia de la Unión Soviética, ha demostrado mucha más competencia en materia de innovación local -las empresas chinas ya están liderando el camino en la próxima generación de redes móviles 5G- y su capacidad para una guerra cibernética está plenamente a la par de la de Estados Unidos, mantenerse cerca de la vanguardia no es lo mismo que definirla. Los logros de China todavía provienen, en gran medida, de la adopción de tecnología occidental y, en algunos casos, de la apropiación de propiedad intelectual. No puede decirse que Trump sea el primer presidente norteamericano en quejarse de esta situación, y tiene razón de hacerlo (aunque iniciar una guerra comercial no puede ser la solución).
En la economía del siglo XXI, otros factores, entre ellos el régimen de derecho, así como el acceso a energía, tierra cultivable y agua potable, también pueden volverse cada vez más importantes. China está siguiendo su propio camino y todavía puede demostrar que los sistemas centralizados son capaces de impulsar más, y más rápido, el desarrollo de lo que cualquiera habría imaginado, mucho más allá de ser simplemente un país con un ingreso medio en alza. Pero no puede decirse que la dominancia global de China sea la certeza predeterminada que tantos expertos parecen suponer.
Es cierto, Estados Unidos también enfrenta enormes desafíos. Por ejemplo, debe diseñar una manera de conservar el crecimiento tecnológico dinámico al mismo tiempo que impide una concentración excesiva de riqueza y poder. Sin embargo, ser un poder hegemónico no requiere ser el país más grande del mundo -si así fuera, Inglaterra nunca habría gobernado gran parte del mundo como lo hizo durante más de un siglo-. China podría liderar el futuro digital si Estados Unidos no hace su parte, pero no se convertirá en la potencia global dominante sólo porque tiene una población mayor. Por el contrario, la era inminente de las máquinas podría ser un punto de inflexión en la batalla por la hegemonía.
Will China Really Supplant US Economic Hegemony?(*)
Apr 2, 2018
KENNETH ROGOFF
As artificial intelligence reshapes the global economy, economists who once argued that China's massive population would propel it to superpower status should rethink that assumption. In fact, as the global economy reaches higher stages of development, China's labor advantage today could become a handicap tomorrow.
CAMBRIDGE – As China and the United States engage in their latest trade tussle, most economists take it as given that China will achieve global economic supremacy in the long run, no matter what happens now. After all, with four times as many people as the US, and a determined program to catch up after centuries of technological stagnation, isn’t it inevitable that China will decisively take over the mantle of economic hegemon?
I am not so sure. Many economists, including many of the same experts who see China’s huge labor force as a decisive advantage, also worry that robots and artificial intelligence will eventually take away most jobs, leaving most humans to while away their time engaged in leisure activities.
Which is it? Over the next 100 years, who takes over, Chinese workers or the robots? If robots and AI are the dominant drivers of production in the coming century, perhaps having too large a population to care for – especially one that needs to be controlled through limits on Internet and information access – will turn out to be more of a hindrance for China. The rapid aging of China’s population exacerbates the challenge.
As the rising importance of robotics and AI blunts China’s manufacturing edge, the ability to lead in technology will become more important. Here, the current trend toward higher concentration of power and control in the central government, as opposed to the private sector, could hamstring China as the global economy reaches higher stages of development.
The possibility that China might never supplant the US as the world’s economic hegemon is the flip side of the technology and inequality problem. Everyone in the West is worrying about the future of work, but in many ways it is a bigger problem for the Chinese development model than for the American one. The US needs to struggle with the problem of how to redistribute income internally, especially given highly concentrated ownership of new ideas and technology. But for China, there is the additional problem of how to extend its franchise as export superpower into the machine age.
True, it is highly unlikely that President Donald Trump’s huffing and puffing and bluffing will bring about a large-scale return of manufacturing jobs to the US. But the US has the potential to expand the size of its manufacturing base anyway, in terms of output if not jobs. After all, today’s high-tech factory floors produce far more with far fewer workers. And the robots and AI are coming not just in manufacturing and driverless cars. Robo-doctors, robo-financial advisors, and robo-lawyers are just the tip of the iceberg in machine disruption of service-sector jobs.
To be sure, China’s rise is hardly a mirage, and its heady success is not built on population size alone. India has a similar population (both around 1.3 billion people), but for now, at least, it trails far behind. Chinese leadership must be credited with doing a miraculous job of lifting hundreds of millions of people out of poverty and into the middle class.
But China’s rapid growth has been driven mostly by technology catch-up and investment. And while China, unlike the Soviet Union, has shown vastly more competence in homegrown innovation – Chinese companies are already leading the way in the next generation of 5G mobile networks – and its cyber-warfare capacity is fully on par with the US, keeping close to the cutting edge is not the same thing as defining it. China’s gains still come largely from adoption of Western technology, and in some cases, appropriation of intellectual property. Trump is hardly the first American president to complain on this score, and he is right to do so (though starting a trade war cannot be the solution).
In the economy of the twenty-first century, other factors, including rule of law, as well as access to energy, arable land, and clean water may also become increasingly important. China is following its own path and may yet prove that centralized systems can push development further and faster than anyone had imagined, far beyond simply being a growing middle-income country. But China’s global dominance is hardly the predetermined certainty that so many experts seem to assume.
Yes, the US faces vast challenges as well. For example, it must devise a way to retain dynamic technological growth while preventing excessive concentration of wealth and power. To be a hegemon, however, does not require being the world’s largest country – otherwise, England would never have ruled much of the world as it did for more than a century. China might lead the digital future if the US drops the ball, but it won’t become the dominant global power simply because it has a larger population. On the contrary, the coming machine age could be a game changer in the battle for hegemony.
Kenneth Rogoff, Professor of Economics and Public Policy at Harvard University and recipient of the 2011 Deutsche Bank Prize in Financial Economics, was the chief economist of the International Monetary Fund from 2001 to 2003. The co-author of This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly, his new book, The Curse of Cash, was released in August 2016.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/china-huge-population-may-hinder-growth-by-kenneth-rogoff-2018-04
(*) Spanish translation:
¿China realmente reemplazará la hegemonía económica de Estados Unidos?
Apr 2, 2018
KENNETH ROGOFF
CAMBRIDGE – En tanto China y Estados Unidos libran su último forcejeo comercial, la mayoría de los economistas dan por sentado que China alcanzará una supremacía económica global en el largo plazo, no importa lo que suceda ahora. Después de todo, con una población cuatro veces más grande que la de Estados Unidos, y un programa pensado para ponerse al día después de siglos de estancamiento tecnológico, ¿no es inevitable que China decididamente asuma la responsabilidad de ser una potencia económica hegemónica?
No estoy tan seguro. Muchos economistas, entre ellos muchos de los mismos expertos que ven la inmensa fuerza laboral de China como una ventaja decisiva, también temen que los robots y la inteligencia artificial terminen robándose la mayoría de los empleos, y que la mayoría de los seres humanos mate el tiempo en actividades recreativas.
¿Qué sucederá? En los próximos cien años, ¿quién tomará el poder? ¿Los trabajadores o los robots chinos? Si los robots y la IA son los motores dominantes de la producción en el próximo siglo, quizá tener una población demasiado grande de la que ocuparse -especialmente una población que necesita ser controlada a través de límites a Internet y al acceso a la información- termine siendo más bien un estorbo para China. El rápido envejecimiento de la población de China exacerba el desafío.
En tanto la creciente importancia de la robótica y la IA mitiga la ventaja industrial de China, la capacidad de liderar en el campo de la tecnología se volverá más relevante. Aquí, la tendencia actual hacia una mayor concentración del poder y del control en el gobierno central, en oposición al sector privado, podría afectar a China en tanto la economía global alcanza etapas superiores de desarrollo.
La posibilidad de que China nunca pueda reemplazar a Estados Unidos como la potencia económica hegemónica del mundo es la otra cara del problema de la tecnología y la desigualdad. Todos en Occidente temen por el futuro del trabajo, pero en muchos sentidos es un problema mayor para el modelo de desarrollo chino que para el norteamericano. Estados Unidos necesita lidiar con el problema de cómo redistribuir el ingreso internamente, especialmente considerando la propiedad altamente concentrada de las nuevas ideas y la tecnología. Pero, en el caso de China, existe el problema adicional de cómo extender su franquicia de superpotencia exportadora a la era de las máquinas.
Es verdad, es sumamente improbable que la postura bravucona del presidente Donald Trump genere un regreso masivo de empleos industriales a Estados Unidos. Pero Estados Unidos tiene el potencial de expandir el tamaño de su base industrial de todas maneras, en términos de producción si no de empleos. Después de todo, las plantas industriales de alta tecnología de hoy tienen una producción mucho mayor con muchos menos trabajadores. Y los robots y la IA inciden no sólo en la industria y en los autos sin conductor. Los robo-médicos, los robo-asesores financieros y los robo-abogados son sólo la punta del iceberg en la disrupción por parte de las máquinas de los empleos del sector de servicios.
Sin duda, difícilmente se pueda decir que el ascenso de China sea un espejismo, y su éxito vertiginoso no se basa solamente en el tamaño de la población. India tiene una población similar (ambos rondan los 1.300 millones de habitantes), pero, por ahora al menos, está mucho más rezagada. Hay que darle crédito al liderazgo chino por el trabajo milagroso de sacar a cientos de millones de personas de la pobreza e introducirlas en la clase media.
Pero el rápido crecimiento de China ha estado impulsado principalmente por un progreso y una inversión en tecnología. Y si bien China, a diferencia de la Unión Soviética, ha demostrado mucha más competencia en materia de innovación local -las empresas chinas ya están liderando el camino en la próxima generación de redes móviles 5G- y su capacidad para una guerra cibernética está plenamente a la par de la de Estados Unidos, mantenerse cerca de la vanguardia no es lo mismo que definirla. Los logros de China todavía provienen, en gran medida, de la adopción de tecnología occidental y, en algunos casos, de la apropiación de propiedad intelectual. No puede decirse que Trump sea el primer presidente norteamericano en quejarse de esta situación, y tiene razón de hacerlo (aunque iniciar una guerra comercial no puede ser la solución).
En la economía del siglo XXI, otros factores, entre ellos el régimen de derecho, así como el acceso a energía, tierra cultivable y agua potable, también pueden volverse cada vez más importantes. China está siguiendo su propio camino y todavía puede demostrar que los sistemas centralizados son capaces de impulsar más, y más rápido, el desarrollo de lo que cualquiera habría imaginado, mucho más allá de ser simplemente un país con un ingreso medio en alza. Pero no puede decirse que la dominancia global de China sea la certeza predeterminada que tantos expertos parecen suponer.
Es cierto, Estados Unidos también enfrenta enormes desafíos. Por ejemplo, debe diseñar una manera de conservar el crecimiento tecnológico dinámico al mismo tiempo que impide una concentración excesiva de riqueza y poder. Sin embargo, ser un poder hegemónico no requiere ser el país más grande del mundo -si así fuera, Inglaterra nunca habría gobernado gran parte del mundo como lo hizo durante más de un siglo-. China podría liderar el futuro digital si Estados Unidos no hace su parte, pero no se convertirá en la potencia global dominante sólo porque tiene una población mayor. Por el contrario, la era inminente de las máquinas podría ser un punto de inflexión en la batalla por la hegemonía.
ECON/GINT-Reimagining Security and Rethinking Economics by Harold James
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
Reimagining Security and Rethinking Economics
Apr 4, 2018
HAROLD JAMES
Economic and financial issues nowadays tend to be discussed in intellectual silos, by specialists who give little mind to security concerns or the interplay between national and international objectives. But sooner or later, economists will realize that global security demands a new approach, just as it did in the interwar period.
PRINCETON – Now that the world is facing a trade war and the growing possibility that the West could find itself in a real war, we would do well to reconsider the lessons of the interwar period.
Many of today’s economic and security disorders are frequently attributed to the 2008 global financial crisis. In addition to exposing the flaws in conventional economic policies, the crisis and its aftermath accelerated the global rebalancing from the Atlantic to the Asia-Pacific region, while fueling political discontent and the rise of anti-establishment movements in the West.
Likewise, the Great Depression of the 1930s is usually thought to have produced a seismic shift in economic thinking. According to the conventional narrative, policymakers at the time, having vowed never to repeat the errors that led to the crisis, devised new measures to overcome their economies’ prolonged malaise.
The conceptual and institutional reordering of economics that followed is usually credited to one towering figure: the British economist John Maynard Keynes, who published The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936. Keynes also orchestrated the 1944 Bretton Woods conference, which led to the creation of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the post-war global monetary order.
According to Keynes’s collaborator and biographer Roy Harrod, Keynes enjoyed a god-like presence at the Bretton Woods talks. But some of Keynes’s other contemporaries, notably the British economist Joan Robinson, always doubted that he deserved so much credit for ushering in the new order.
After all, the real reason that Keynesian thinking took hold was that its method of calculating aggregate consumption, investment, and savings proved invaluable for American and British military planning during World War II. With consistent national accounting, governments could make better use of resources, divert production from civilian to military purposes, and curtail inflationary pressures, thereby maintaining consumption and staving off civil unrest.
The same tools turned out to be just as useful in reorienting the post-war economy toward higher household consumption. But the point is that the revolution in economics, followed by the economic miracles of the post-war era, was a product of wartime calculation, not peacetime reflection. Pressing security concerns and the need to ensure domestic and international stability made policymakers more willing to challenge longstanding economic orthodoxy.
This era holds important lessons for the present. Nowadays, many economists complain that the financial crisis did not prompt a serious rethinking of conventional economics. There are no modern-day equivalents to Keynes. Instead, economic and financial issues tend to be discussed in intellectual silos, by specialists who give little mind to security concerns or the interplay between national and international objectives.
Still, as in the interwar period, there are security threats today that will make rethinking economic assumptions necessary, if not inevitable. Though the financial crisis did not lead to a holistic intellectual reckoning, three broader challenges to the liberal international order since 2016 almost certainly will.
The first challenge is the existential threat of climate change, which will have far-reaching geopolitical consequences, particularly for areas already facing water shortages, and for tropical countries and coastal cities already experiencing the effects of rising sea levels. At the same time, some countries will enjoy temporary gains, owing to longer growing seasons and increased access to minerals, hydrocarbons, and other resources in polar regions.
Ultimately, reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will serve the common good. But, without an international mechanism to compensate those most at risk of a warming planet, individual countries will weigh the trade-offs of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions differently.
The second global challenge is artificial intelligence and its foreseeable disruption of labor markets. AI threatens not just employment but also security, because it will render obsolete many technologies that states use to defend their populations and deter aggression. It is little wonder that larger powers like the United States and China are already racing to dominate AI and other big-data technologies. As they continue to do so, they will be playing an increasingly dangerous and unstable game, in which each technological turn could fundamentally transform politics by rendering old defenses useless.
The third challenge is the monetary revolution being driven by distributed-ledger technologies such as blockchain, which holds out the promise of creating non-state money. Since Bretton Woods, monetary dominance has been a form of power, particularly for the US. But alternative modes of money will offer both governments and non-state actors new ways to assert power or bypass existing power structures. Cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin are already disrupting markets, and could someday alter the financial relations on which modern industrial societies are based.
In the new political geography, China, Russia, India, and others see each of these challenges as opportunities to shape the future of globalization on their own terms. What they envision would look very different from the model of the late twentieth century. China, for example, regards AI as a tool for recasting political organization through mass surveillance and state-directed thinking. By replacing individualism with collectivism, it could push global politics in a profoundly illiberal direction.
Fortunately, there are alternative paths forward. In rethinking economics and security, we will need to develop an approach that advances innovation within a framework of coordinated deliberation about future social and political arrangements. We need to apply human imagination and inventiveness not only to the creation of new technologies, but also to the systems that will govern those technologies.
The best future will be one in which governments and multinational corporations do not control all of the information. The challenge, then, is to devise generally acceptable solutions based on cooperation, rather than on the destruction of competing visions.
Harold James is Professor of History and International Affairs at Princeton University and a senior fellow at the Center for International Governance Innovation. A specialist on German economic history and on globalization, he is a co-author of the new book The Euro and The Battle of Ideas, and the author of The Creation and Destruction of Value: The Globalization Cycle, Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm, and Making the European Monetary Union.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/rethinking-economics-and-security-by-harold-james-2018-04
Reimagining Security and Rethinking Economics
Apr 4, 2018
HAROLD JAMES
Economic and financial issues nowadays tend to be discussed in intellectual silos, by specialists who give little mind to security concerns or the interplay between national and international objectives. But sooner or later, economists will realize that global security demands a new approach, just as it did in the interwar period.
PRINCETON – Now that the world is facing a trade war and the growing possibility that the West could find itself in a real war, we would do well to reconsider the lessons of the interwar period.
Many of today’s economic and security disorders are frequently attributed to the 2008 global financial crisis. In addition to exposing the flaws in conventional economic policies, the crisis and its aftermath accelerated the global rebalancing from the Atlantic to the Asia-Pacific region, while fueling political discontent and the rise of anti-establishment movements in the West.
Likewise, the Great Depression of the 1930s is usually thought to have produced a seismic shift in economic thinking. According to the conventional narrative, policymakers at the time, having vowed never to repeat the errors that led to the crisis, devised new measures to overcome their economies’ prolonged malaise.
The conceptual and institutional reordering of economics that followed is usually credited to one towering figure: the British economist John Maynard Keynes, who published The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936. Keynes also orchestrated the 1944 Bretton Woods conference, which led to the creation of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the post-war global monetary order.
According to Keynes’s collaborator and biographer Roy Harrod, Keynes enjoyed a god-like presence at the Bretton Woods talks. But some of Keynes’s other contemporaries, notably the British economist Joan Robinson, always doubted that he deserved so much credit for ushering in the new order.
After all, the real reason that Keynesian thinking took hold was that its method of calculating aggregate consumption, investment, and savings proved invaluable for American and British military planning during World War II. With consistent national accounting, governments could make better use of resources, divert production from civilian to military purposes, and curtail inflationary pressures, thereby maintaining consumption and staving off civil unrest.
The same tools turned out to be just as useful in reorienting the post-war economy toward higher household consumption. But the point is that the revolution in economics, followed by the economic miracles of the post-war era, was a product of wartime calculation, not peacetime reflection. Pressing security concerns and the need to ensure domestic and international stability made policymakers more willing to challenge longstanding economic orthodoxy.
This era holds important lessons for the present. Nowadays, many economists complain that the financial crisis did not prompt a serious rethinking of conventional economics. There are no modern-day equivalents to Keynes. Instead, economic and financial issues tend to be discussed in intellectual silos, by specialists who give little mind to security concerns or the interplay between national and international objectives.
Still, as in the interwar period, there are security threats today that will make rethinking economic assumptions necessary, if not inevitable. Though the financial crisis did not lead to a holistic intellectual reckoning, three broader challenges to the liberal international order since 2016 almost certainly will.
The first challenge is the existential threat of climate change, which will have far-reaching geopolitical consequences, particularly for areas already facing water shortages, and for tropical countries and coastal cities already experiencing the effects of rising sea levels. At the same time, some countries will enjoy temporary gains, owing to longer growing seasons and increased access to minerals, hydrocarbons, and other resources in polar regions.
Ultimately, reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will serve the common good. But, without an international mechanism to compensate those most at risk of a warming planet, individual countries will weigh the trade-offs of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions differently.
The second global challenge is artificial intelligence and its foreseeable disruption of labor markets. AI threatens not just employment but also security, because it will render obsolete many technologies that states use to defend their populations and deter aggression. It is little wonder that larger powers like the United States and China are already racing to dominate AI and other big-data technologies. As they continue to do so, they will be playing an increasingly dangerous and unstable game, in which each technological turn could fundamentally transform politics by rendering old defenses useless.
The third challenge is the monetary revolution being driven by distributed-ledger technologies such as blockchain, which holds out the promise of creating non-state money. Since Bretton Woods, monetary dominance has been a form of power, particularly for the US. But alternative modes of money will offer both governments and non-state actors new ways to assert power or bypass existing power structures. Cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin are already disrupting markets, and could someday alter the financial relations on which modern industrial societies are based.
In the new political geography, China, Russia, India, and others see each of these challenges as opportunities to shape the future of globalization on their own terms. What they envision would look very different from the model of the late twentieth century. China, for example, regards AI as a tool for recasting political organization through mass surveillance and state-directed thinking. By replacing individualism with collectivism, it could push global politics in a profoundly illiberal direction.
Fortunately, there are alternative paths forward. In rethinking economics and security, we will need to develop an approach that advances innovation within a framework of coordinated deliberation about future social and political arrangements. We need to apply human imagination and inventiveness not only to the creation of new technologies, but also to the systems that will govern those technologies.
The best future will be one in which governments and multinational corporations do not control all of the information. The challenge, then, is to devise generally acceptable solutions based on cooperation, rather than on the destruction of competing visions.
Harold James is Professor of History and International Affairs at Princeton University and a senior fellow at the Center for International Governance Innovation. A specialist on German economic history and on globalization, he is a co-author of the new book The Euro and The Battle of Ideas, and the author of The Creation and Destruction of Value: The Globalization Cycle, Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm, and Making the European Monetary Union.
Source:https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/rethinking-economics-and-security-by-harold-james-2018-04
Memoria-Estados Unidos: Martin Luther King, el valor de un hombre inmenso, por Luis Vinker
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
Memoria
Estados Unidos: Martin Luther King, el valor de un hombre inmenso
Este miércoles se cumplen 50 años del asesinato, en Memphis, del líder por los derechos de los negros.
Luis Vinker
Discurso. Martin Luther King el 28 de agosto de 1963 en la Marcha de Washington, en donde pronunció su discurso inmortal: “Yo tengo un sueño”. AFP (*)
Aquel 4 de abril a las 18.01 -este miércoles hace exactamente medio siglo- Martin Luther King salió al balcón de la habitación 306 del motel Lorraine en Memphis, Tennessee. Allí, un disparo acabó con su vida (una hora después)y causó una conmoción mundial. Cinco años antes, otro magnicidio había sacudido a Estados Unidos -John F. Kennedy- y la secuela se prolongaría con el hermano de éste, Bob. Pero si aquel disparo segó la vida de Luther King, que apenas tenía 39 años, no ocurrió lo mismo con sus ideales y su movimiento. A esa altura, la lucha de la población de raza negra por sus derechos civiles era imparable.
Y si el crimen del pastor provocó una ola de disturbios y saqueos en cien ciudades, en poco tiempo su imagen siguió creciendo. Inclusive, se prolongaría en la rebelión de los jóvenes y en las constantes manifestaciones contra la Guerra de Vietnam. Todos los símbolos de una época que, por momentos, nos parece tan lejana... Y en otros -cuando renace cierta tensión racial- los discursos, las movilizaciones y la gesta de Luther King nos suenan como si fuera ayer.
Nacido en Atlanta el 15 de enero de 1929, siempre recordó dos hechos de la infancia que marcaron su vida: la muerte de su abuela y la discriminación. También habría que citar a su padre, Martin Luther King Sr, predicador religioso y uno de los primeros líderes en la lucha de los negros por sus derechos. Con apenas 17 años, su hijo hizo publicar una carta en el Atlanta Constitution donde afirmaba:“Las personas negras también son titulares de los derechos básicos y las oportunidades de los ciudadanos americanos”.
Biografía de Martin Luther King. AFP
Estudió teología en Boston y, ya casado con Coretta, se trasladó a Montgomery, Alabama: el sur profundo y uno de los estados más racistas. Después del famoso episodio de Rosa Parks (1955) que impulsó el fin de la segregación racial en los autobuses, King quedó como un líder natural en la lucha de los negros por la igualdad. Sus biógrafos calculan que sus recorridos fueron “infinitos” y que habló en más de 2.500 actos públicos. Fue arrestado 20 veces y sufrió cuatro ataques directos, uno de ellos a cuchilladas en Nueva York. El día que mataron a JFK, sintió que él también estaba sentenciado.
Su momento memorable fue el 28 de agosto de 1963, cuando movilizó a 250 mil personas en Washington por los derechos civiles. Y allí, frente al Memorial Lincoln, pronunció su discurso inmortal: “Yo tengo un sueño”. La prefiguración de lo que sucedería de allí en más en su país. Desde que Lyndon Johnson tuviera que firmar la ley de los Derechos Civiles para terminar con la segregación hasta que, décadas después, por primera vez una persona de raza negra alcanzara la presidencia. Y entonces Barack Obama supo rendirle tributo.
El exterior del motel Lorraine y del Museo Nacional de Derechos Civiles, lugar de celebración del 50 aniversario del asesinato de Martin Luther King Jr, asesinado a tiros mientras permanecía en el balcón del Motel Loraine frente a la habitación 306 donde se hospedaba . EFE
King también había liderado la marcha de Selma hacia Montgomery (1965), enfrentando el racismo en Alabama, en lo que se conoció como el Domingo Sangriento. Allí expresó que “el arco del universo moral es largo, pero se inclinará para el lado de la Justicia”. Y Johnson tuvo que admitir que “la discriminación no es un problema de los negros, del Sur o del Norte. Es un problema americano”.
Martin Luther King ya había sido distinguido con el Premio Nobel de la Paz en 1964 y su autoridad crecía. Hasta que aquel disparo terminó con su vida en la tarde de Memphis. Su autor, un delincuente de poca monta llamado James Earl Ray, consiguió escapar. Dos meses más tarde fue capturado por Scotland Yard, en Londres, y lo extraditaron. Su destino era la silla eléctrica, pero se declaró culpable y lo sentenciaron a 99 años de prisión (murió en 1998, a los 70 años). Nunca faltaron las versiones de conspiración y la viuda de King consiguió que se reabriera la investigación a fines de los 90. Pero el Departamento de Estado determinó que “no hubo ninguna conspiración”. Quedaron las dudas. Y, sobre ellas y sobre el crimen, el valor de un hombre inmenso.
Fuente:www.clarin.com
(*)
Memoria
Estados Unidos: Martin Luther King, el valor de un hombre inmenso
Este miércoles se cumplen 50 años del asesinato, en Memphis, del líder por los derechos de los negros.
Luis Vinker
Discurso. Martin Luther King el 28 de agosto de 1963 en la Marcha de Washington, en donde pronunció su discurso inmortal: “Yo tengo un sueño”. AFP (*)
Aquel 4 de abril a las 18.01 -este miércoles hace exactamente medio siglo- Martin Luther King salió al balcón de la habitación 306 del motel Lorraine en Memphis, Tennessee. Allí, un disparo acabó con su vida (una hora después)y causó una conmoción mundial. Cinco años antes, otro magnicidio había sacudido a Estados Unidos -John F. Kennedy- y la secuela se prolongaría con el hermano de éste, Bob. Pero si aquel disparo segó la vida de Luther King, que apenas tenía 39 años, no ocurrió lo mismo con sus ideales y su movimiento. A esa altura, la lucha de la población de raza negra por sus derechos civiles era imparable.
Y si el crimen del pastor provocó una ola de disturbios y saqueos en cien ciudades, en poco tiempo su imagen siguió creciendo. Inclusive, se prolongaría en la rebelión de los jóvenes y en las constantes manifestaciones contra la Guerra de Vietnam. Todos los símbolos de una época que, por momentos, nos parece tan lejana... Y en otros -cuando renace cierta tensión racial- los discursos, las movilizaciones y la gesta de Luther King nos suenan como si fuera ayer.
Nacido en Atlanta el 15 de enero de 1929, siempre recordó dos hechos de la infancia que marcaron su vida: la muerte de su abuela y la discriminación. También habría que citar a su padre, Martin Luther King Sr, predicador religioso y uno de los primeros líderes en la lucha de los negros por sus derechos. Con apenas 17 años, su hijo hizo publicar una carta en el Atlanta Constitution donde afirmaba:“Las personas negras también son titulares de los derechos básicos y las oportunidades de los ciudadanos americanos”.
Biografía de Martin Luther King. AFP
Estudió teología en Boston y, ya casado con Coretta, se trasladó a Montgomery, Alabama: el sur profundo y uno de los estados más racistas. Después del famoso episodio de Rosa Parks (1955) que impulsó el fin de la segregación racial en los autobuses, King quedó como un líder natural en la lucha de los negros por la igualdad. Sus biógrafos calculan que sus recorridos fueron “infinitos” y que habló en más de 2.500 actos públicos. Fue arrestado 20 veces y sufrió cuatro ataques directos, uno de ellos a cuchilladas en Nueva York. El día que mataron a JFK, sintió que él también estaba sentenciado.
Su momento memorable fue el 28 de agosto de 1963, cuando movilizó a 250 mil personas en Washington por los derechos civiles. Y allí, frente al Memorial Lincoln, pronunció su discurso inmortal: “Yo tengo un sueño”. La prefiguración de lo que sucedería de allí en más en su país. Desde que Lyndon Johnson tuviera que firmar la ley de los Derechos Civiles para terminar con la segregación hasta que, décadas después, por primera vez una persona de raza negra alcanzara la presidencia. Y entonces Barack Obama supo rendirle tributo.
El exterior del motel Lorraine y del Museo Nacional de Derechos Civiles, lugar de celebración del 50 aniversario del asesinato de Martin Luther King Jr, asesinado a tiros mientras permanecía en el balcón del Motel Loraine frente a la habitación 306 donde se hospedaba . EFE
King también había liderado la marcha de Selma hacia Montgomery (1965), enfrentando el racismo en Alabama, en lo que se conoció como el Domingo Sangriento. Allí expresó que “el arco del universo moral es largo, pero se inclinará para el lado de la Justicia”. Y Johnson tuvo que admitir que “la discriminación no es un problema de los negros, del Sur o del Norte. Es un problema americano”.
Martin Luther King ya había sido distinguido con el Premio Nobel de la Paz en 1964 y su autoridad crecía. Hasta que aquel disparo terminó con su vida en la tarde de Memphis. Su autor, un delincuente de poca monta llamado James Earl Ray, consiguió escapar. Dos meses más tarde fue capturado por Scotland Yard, en Londres, y lo extraditaron. Su destino era la silla eléctrica, pero se declaró culpable y lo sentenciaron a 99 años de prisión (murió en 1998, a los 70 años). Nunca faltaron las versiones de conspiración y la viuda de King consiguió que se reabriera la investigación a fines de los 90. Pero el Departamento de Estado determinó que “no hubo ninguna conspiración”. Quedaron las dudas. Y, sobre ellas y sobre el crimen, el valor de un hombre inmenso.
Fuente:www.clarin.com
(*)
«Tengo un sueño»
por MARTIN LUTHER KING
«Estoy orgulloso de reunirme con ustedes hoy en la que quedará como la mayor manifestación por la libertad en la historia de nuestra nación. Hace cien años, un gran americano, cuya sombra simbólica nos cobija, firmó la Proclama de Emancipación. Este importante decreto se convirtió en un gran faro de esperanza para millones de esclavos negros que fueron cocinados en las llamas de la injusticia. Llegó como un amanecer de alegría para terminar la larga noche del cautiverio. Pero 100 años después debemos enfrentar el hecho trágico de que el negro aún no es libre. Cien años después, la vida del negro es todavía minada por los grilletes de la discriminación. Cien años después, el negro vive en una solitaria isla de pobreza en medio de un vasto océano de prosperidad material. Cien años después, el negro todavía languidece en los rincones de la sociedad estadounidense y se encuentra a sí mismo exiliado en su propia tierra.
Y así hemos venido aquí hoy para dramatizar una condición extrema. En cierto sentido, llegamos a la capital de nuestra nación para cobrar un cheque. Cuando los arquitectos de nuestra república escribieron las magníficas palabras de la Constitución y la Declaración de Independencia, firmaban una promisoria nota de la que todo estadounidense sería heredero. Esa nota era una promesa de que todos los hombres tendrían garantizados los derechos inalienables de 'vida, libertad y búsqueda de la felicidad'. Es obvio hoy que Estados Unidos ha fallado en su promesa en lo que respecta a sus ciudadanos de color. En vez de honrar su obligación sagrada, Estados Unidos dio al negro un cheque sin valor que fue devuelto con el sello de 'fondos insuficientes'. Pero nos rehusamos a creer que el banco de la justicia está quebrado. Nos rehusamos a creer que no hay fondos en los grandes depósitos de oportunidad en esta nación. Por eso hemos venido a cobrar ese cheque, un cheque que nos dará las riquezas de la libertad y la seguridad de la justicia.
También hemos venido a este lugar sagrado para recordarle a Estados Unidos la urgencia feroz del ahora. Este no es tiempo para entrar en el lujo del enfriamiento o para tomar la droga tranquilizadora del gradualismo. Ahora es el tiempo de elevarnos del oscuro y desolado valle de la segregación hacia el iluminado camino de la justicia racial. Ahora es el tiempo de elevar nuestra nación de las arenas movedizas de la injusticia racial hacia la sólida roca de la hermandad. Ahora es el tiempo de hacer de la justicia una realidad para todos los hijos de Dios. Sería fatal para la nación pasar por alto la urgencia del momento. Este sofocante verano del legítimo descontento del negro no terminará hasta que venga un otoño revitalizador de libertad e igualdad. 1963 no es un fin, sino un principio. Aquellos que piensan que el negro sólo necesita evacuar su frustración y que ahora permanecerá contento, tendrán un rudo despertar si la nación regresa a su rutina.
No habrá ni descanso ni tranquilidad en Estados Unidos hasta que el negro tenga garantizados sus derechos de ciudadano. Los remolinos de la revuelta continuarán sacudiendo los cimientos de nuestra nación hasta que emerja el esplendoroso día de la justicia. Pero hay algo que debo decir a mi gente, que aguarda en el cálido umbral que lleva al palacio de la justicia: en el proceso de ganar nuestro justo lugar no deberemos ser culpables de hechos erróneos. No saciemos nuestra sed de libertad tomando de la copa de la amargura y el odio. Siempre debemos conducir nuestra lucha en el elevado plano de la dignidad y la disciplina. No debemos permitir que nuestra protesta creativa degenere en violencia física. Una y otra vez debemos elevarnos a las majestuosas alturas de la resistencia a la fuerza física con la fuerza del alma. Esta nueva militancia maravillosa que ha abrazado a la comunidad negra no debe conducir a la desconfianza de los blancos, ya que muchos de nuestros hermanos blancos, como lo demuestra su presencia aquí hoy, se han dado cuenta de que su destino está atado al nuestro. Se han dado cuenta de que su libertad está ligada inextricablemente a nuestra libertad. No podemos caminar solos. Y a medida que caminemos, debemos hacernos la promesa de marchar siempre hacia el frente. No podemos volver atrás.
Hay quienes preguntan a los que luchan por los derechos civiles: '¿Cuándo quedarán satisfechos?' Nunca estaremos satisfechos mientras el negro sea víctima de los inimaginables horrores de la brutalidad policial. Nunca estaremos satisfechos en tanto nuestros cuerpos, pesados por la fatiga del viaje, no puedan acceder a un alojamiento en los moteles de las carreteras y los hoteles de las ciudades. No estaremos satisfechos mientras la movilidad básica del negro sea de un gueto pequeño a uno más grande. Nunca estaremos satisfechos mientras a nuestros hijos les sea arrancado su ser y robada su dignidad con carteles que rezan: 'Solamente para blancos'. No podemos estar satisfechos y no estaremos satisfechos en tanto un negro de Mississippi no pueda votar y un negro en Nueva York crea que no tiene nada por qué votar. No, no estamos satisfechos, y no estaremos satisfechos hasta que la justicia nos caiga como una catarata y el bien como un torrente.
No olvido que muchos de ustedes están aquí tras pasar por grandes pruebas y tribulaciones. Algunos de ustedes acaban de salir de celdas angostas. Algunos de ustedes llegaron desde zonas donde su búsqueda de libertad los ha dejado golpeados por las tormentas de la persecución y sacudidos por los vientos de la brutalidad policial. Ustedes son los veteranos del sufrimiento creativo. Continúen su trabajo con la fe de que el sufrimiento sin recompensa asegura la redención. Vuelvan a Mississippi, vuelvan a Alabama, regresen a Georgia, a Louisiana, a las zonas pobres y guetos de las ciudades norteñas, con la sabiduría de que, de alguna forma, esta situación puede ser y será cambiada. No nos deleitemos en el valle de la desesperación. Les digo a ustedes hoy, mis amigos, que pese a todas las dificultades y frustraciones del momento, yo todavía tengo un sueño. Es un sueño arraigado profundamente en el sueño americano.
Yo tengo un sueño de que un día esta nación se elevará y vivirá el verdadero significado de su credo: 'Creemos que estas verdades son evidentes: que todos los hombres son creados iguales'.
Yo tengo el sueño de que un día en las coloradas colinas de Georgia los hijos de los ex esclavos y los hijos de los ex propietarios de esclavos serán capaces de sentarse juntos en la mesa de la hermandad.
Yo tengo el sueño de que un día incluso el estado de Mississippi, un estado desierto, sofocado por el calor de la injusticia y la opresión, será transformado en un oasis de libertad y justicia.
Yo tengo el sueño de que mis cuatro hijos pequeños vivirán un día en una nación donde no serán juzgados por el color de su piel sino por el contenido de su carácter. ¡Yo tengo un sueño hoy!
Yo tengo el sueño de que un día, allá en Alabama, con sus racistas despiadados, con un gobernador cuyos labios gotean con las palabras de la interposición y la anulación; un día allí mismo en Alabama, pequeños niños negros y pequeñas niñas negras serán capaces de unir sus manos con pequeños niños blancos y niñas blancas como hermanos y hermanas. ¡Yo tengo un sueño hoy!
Yo tengo el sueño de que un día cada valle será exaltado, cada colina y montaña será bajada, los sitios escarpados serán aplanados y los sitios sinuosos serán enderezados, y que la gloria del Señor será revelada y toda la carne la verá al unísono. Esta es nuestra esperanza. Esta es la fe con la que regresaré al sur. Con esta fe seremos capaces de esculpir en la montaña de la desesperación una piedra de esperanza. Con esta fe seremos capaces de transformar las discordancias de nuestra nación en una hermosa sinfonía de hermandad. Con esta fe seremos capaces de trabajar juntos, de rezar juntos, de luchar juntos, de ir a prisión juntos, de luchar por nuestra libertad juntos, con la certeza de que un día seremos libres.
Este será el día, este será el día en que todos los niños de Dios serán capaces de cantar con un nuevo significado: 'Mi país, dulce tierra de libertad, sobre ti canto. Tierra donde mis padres murieron, tierra del orgullo del peregrino, desde cada ladera, dejen resonar la libertad'. Y si Estados Unidos va a convertirse en una gran nación, esto debe convertirse en realidad. Entonces dejen resonar la libertad desde las prodigiosas cumbres de Nueva Hampshire. Dejen resonar la libertad desde las grandes montañas de Nueva York. Dejen resonar la libertad desde los Alleghenies de Pennsylvania. Dejen resonar la libertad desde los picos nevados de Colorado. Dejen resonar la libertad desde los curvados picos de California. Dejen resonar la libertad desde las montañas de piedra de Georgia. ¡Dejen resonar la libertad de la montaña Lookout de Tennessee. Dejen resonar la libertad desde cada colina y cada montaña de Mississippi, desde cada ladera, dejen resonar la libertad! Y cuando esto ocurra, cuando dejemos resonar la libertad, cuando la dejemos resonar desde cada pueblo y cada caserío, desde cada estado y cada ciudad, seremos capaces de apresurar la llegada de ese día en que todos los hijos de Dios, hombres negros y hombres blancos, judíos y cristianos, protestantes y católicos, serán capaces de unir sus manos y cantar las palabras de un viejo espiritual negro: '¡Por fin somos libres! ¡Por fin somos libres! Gracias a Dios todopoderoso, ¡por fin somos libres!'».
Fuente:http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2013/internacional/martin-luther-king/texto-integro.html
Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have A Dream Speech(**)
Published on Aug 28, 2013
Martin Luther King, Jr., (January 15, 1929-April 4, 1968) was born Michael Luther King, Jr., but later had his name changed to Martin. His grandfather began the family's long tenure as pastors of the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, serving from 1914 to 1931; his father has served from then until the present, and from 1960 until his death Martin Luther acted as co-pastor.
Martin Luther attended segregated public schools in Georgia, graduating from high school at the age of fifteen; he received the B. A. degree in 1948 from Morehouse College, a distinguished Negro* institution of Atlanta from which both his father and grandfather had graduated. After three years of theological study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania where he was elected president of a predominantly white senior class, he was awarded the B.D. in 1951.
With a fellowship won at Crozer, he enrolled in graduate studies at Boston University, completing his residence for the doctorate in 1953 and receiving the degree in 1955. In Boston he met and married Coretta Scott, a young woman of uncommon intellectual and artistic attainments. Two sons and two daughters were born into the family In 1954, Martin Luther King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. Always a strong worker for civil rights for members of his race, King was, by this time, a member of the executive committee of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the leading organization of its kind in the nation. He was ready, then, early in December, 1955, to accept the leadership of the first great Negro nonviolent demonstration of contemporary times in the United States, the bus boycott described by Gunnar Jahn in his presentation speech in honor of the laureate.
The boycott lasted 382 days. On December 21, 1956, after the Supreme Court of the United States had declared unconstitutional the laws requiring segregation on buses, Negroes and whites rode the buses as equals. During these days of boycott, King was arrested, his home was bombed, he was subjected to personal abuse, but at the same time he emerged as a Negro leader of the first rank. In 1957 he was elected president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization formed to provide new leadership for the now burgeoning civil rights movement.
The ideals for this organization he took from Christianity; its operational techniques from Gandhi. In the eleven-year period between 1957 and 1968, King traveled over six million miles and spoke over twenty-five hundred times, appearing wherever there was injustice, protest, and action; and meanwhile he wrote five books as well as numerous articles.
In these years, he led a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, that caught the attention of the entire world, providing what he called a coalition of conscience. and inspiring his "Letter from a Birmingham Jail", a manifesto of the Negro revolution; he planned the drives in Alabama for the registration of Negroes as voters; he directed the peaceful march on Washington, D.C., of 250,000 people to whom he delivered his address, "l Have a Dream", he conferred with President John F. Kennedy and campaigned for President Lyndon B. Johnson; he was arrested upwards of twenty times and assaulted at least four times; he was awarded five honorary degrees; was named Man of the Year by Time magazine in 1963; and became not only the symbolic leader of American blacks but also a world figure.
At the age of thirty-five, Martin Luther King, Jr., was the youngest man to have received the Nobel Peace Prize. When notified of his selection, he announced that he would turn over the prize money of $54,123 to the furtherance of the civil rights movement. On the evening of April 4, 1968, while standing on the balcony of his motel room in Memphis, Tennessee, where he was to lead a protest march in sympathy with striking garbage workers of that city, he was assassinated.
Source:www.youtube.com
(**)
Published on Aug 28, 2013
(**)
I Have A Dream Speech
I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.
But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.
In a sense we have come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked “insufficient funds.” But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So we have come to cash this check — a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.
It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.
But there is something that I must say to my people who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful place we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.
We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. They have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. We cannot walk alone.
As we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. We cannot turn back. There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, “When will you be satisfied?” We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied, as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their selfhood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating “For Whites Only”. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.
I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. Some of you have come from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive.
Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. Let us not wallow in the valley of despair.
I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.”
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.
I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
This will be the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with a new meaning, “My country, ‘tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrim’s pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring.”
And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!
Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado!
Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California!
But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia!
Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!
Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.
And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, “Free at last! free at last! thank God Almighty, we are free at last!”
Source: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/17/i-have-a-dream-speech-text_n_809993.html
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.In a sense we have come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked “insufficient funds.” But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So we have come to cash this check — a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.But there is something that I must say to my people who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful place we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. They have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. We cannot walk alone.As we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. We cannot turn back. There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, “When will you be satisfied?” We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied, as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their selfhood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating “For Whites Only”. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. Some of you have come from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive.Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. Let us not wallow in the valley of despair.I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.”I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.I have a dream today.I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.I have a dream today.I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.This will be the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with a new meaning, “My country, ‘tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrim’s pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring.”And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado!Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California!But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia!Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, “Free at last! free at last! thank God Almighty, we are free at last!”
GINT-LA NACION REVISTA:Mucha ciencia en el año del perro, por Diego Golombek
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
LA NACION REVISTA
Mucha ciencia en el año del perro
Diego Golombek
1 de abril de 2018
Fuente: LA NACION - Crédito: Enriquez
Hablemos de cosas científicamente importantes. 2018 es el año del perro en el horóscopo chino. Bueno., no tendrá mucho de ciencia, ¡pero los perros, sí!
Todo dueño dirá que su mascota es inteligentísima, le alcanza el diario (un poco mordido) y entiende sus emociones. Puede ser, pero el caso es que la domesticación de estos parientes de los libros puede haber reducido algunas capacidades cognitivas de Bobby o Sultán, al menos en relación con sus parientes lobos. Claro que los perros son especiales en cuanto a sus relaciones sociales con su pandilla y con sus humanos. Y esto debe de haber ocurrido hace ya mucho tiempo: los perros del período neolítico parece que eran iguales a los actuales, al menos en lo que respecta a su genoma obtenido a partir de restos europeos. De paso, el estudio genómico de una especie con unas 400 razas ha ayudado mucho a entender su evolución y su historia, y su domesticación, que ocurrió hace entre 20.000 y 40.000 años en Europa.
Algo está claro: los perros miran mucho más a los humanos que lo que nos observan los lobos. Y más allá de su cognición, está claro que en algunos campos son imbatibles. En su libro Ser un perro en el mundo del olfato, Alexandra Horowitz explica la tremenda ingeniería olfativa de los canes: frente a nuestros 6 millones de receptores, ellos tienen unos 300 millones, que usan de 5 a 10 veces por segundo para reconocer un mundo de olores. Así los analizan como verdaderas computadoras olfativas.
Y tanto los queremos que queremos más de ellos, en lo posible igualitos. Sí: desde el primer perro clonado (llamado Snuppy) ha habido varios otros, creados a partir de células madre. de Snuppy. Estos experimentos, además de juegos y lengüetazos, nos han enseñado bastante más sobre la reproducción ladradora: en el camino, se descubrió que Snuppy y su progenitor vivieron aproximadamente la misma cantidad de años, por lo que la clonación no parece afectar la longevidad.
Los dueños juran y perjuran que los perros no solo reconocen nuestros gestos a la perfección, sino que además ponen caras. de alegría, tristeza, entusiasmo. Y hay experimentos que les dan la razón: parecen tener expresiones faciales que, además, dependen de la atención que les prestemos. Esta empatía los hace especialmente preparados para asistir a personas en problemas; es más, el análisis de sus cerebros permite predecir cuáles serán mejores acompañantes terapéuticos, basado sobre la actividad en ciertas áreas nerviosas. De paso, ese mismo análisis de actividad cerebral nos puede ayudar a saber qué está pensando Fido, como cuenta el neurocientífico Gregory Berns en el libro Cómo es ser un perro: se las ingenió para poner a los cachorros en un resonador magnético (no es nada fácil) y descubrió, para su beneplácito, que los cerebros perrunos responden con el mismo amor a la comida que a sus dueños (y a veces, ¡más a la imagen de sus dueños que a la de un buen hueso!).
Sacarlos a pasear, usarlos de estufa, mejorar nuestras perspectivas de seducción (¡probado científicamente!)., enfermarnos menos. Sí: entre las ventajas de tener un perro está la de un riesgo menor de mortalidad debida a trastornos cardiovasculares (sobre todo en los dueños solitarios). Seguramente, esto se deba a mayores interacciones sociales y a la necesidad de realizar actividad física y, de acuerdo con un estudio que se realizó en Suecia, hasta funciona mejor con razas cazadoras.
En fin, este mejor amigo del humano ha ayudado mucho a la ciencia. Y les gana por lejos a sus rivales felinos: una búsqueda muy simple en una base de datos científica arroja unos 330.000 trabajos de investigación publicados sobre perros, y bastante menos de la mitad para los gatos (unos 140.000). Aquí la eterna lucha tiene un claro ganador.
Mucha ciencia para el perro, entonces. Y prepárense, que 2019. es el año del cerdo.
Fuente: La Nación Revista.
LA NACION REVISTA
Mucha ciencia en el año del perro
Diego Golombek
1 de abril de 2018
Fuente: LA NACION - Crédito: Enriquez
Hablemos de cosas científicamente importantes. 2018 es el año del perro en el horóscopo chino. Bueno., no tendrá mucho de ciencia, ¡pero los perros, sí!
Todo dueño dirá que su mascota es inteligentísima, le alcanza el diario (un poco mordido) y entiende sus emociones. Puede ser, pero el caso es que la domesticación de estos parientes de los libros puede haber reducido algunas capacidades cognitivas de Bobby o Sultán, al menos en relación con sus parientes lobos. Claro que los perros son especiales en cuanto a sus relaciones sociales con su pandilla y con sus humanos. Y esto debe de haber ocurrido hace ya mucho tiempo: los perros del período neolítico parece que eran iguales a los actuales, al menos en lo que respecta a su genoma obtenido a partir de restos europeos. De paso, el estudio genómico de una especie con unas 400 razas ha ayudado mucho a entender su evolución y su historia, y su domesticación, que ocurrió hace entre 20.000 y 40.000 años en Europa.
Algo está claro: los perros miran mucho más a los humanos que lo que nos observan los lobos. Y más allá de su cognición, está claro que en algunos campos son imbatibles. En su libro Ser un perro en el mundo del olfato, Alexandra Horowitz explica la tremenda ingeniería olfativa de los canes: frente a nuestros 6 millones de receptores, ellos tienen unos 300 millones, que usan de 5 a 10 veces por segundo para reconocer un mundo de olores. Así los analizan como verdaderas computadoras olfativas.
Y tanto los queremos que queremos más de ellos, en lo posible igualitos. Sí: desde el primer perro clonado (llamado Snuppy) ha habido varios otros, creados a partir de células madre. de Snuppy. Estos experimentos, además de juegos y lengüetazos, nos han enseñado bastante más sobre la reproducción ladradora: en el camino, se descubrió que Snuppy y su progenitor vivieron aproximadamente la misma cantidad de años, por lo que la clonación no parece afectar la longevidad.
Los dueños juran y perjuran que los perros no solo reconocen nuestros gestos a la perfección, sino que además ponen caras. de alegría, tristeza, entusiasmo. Y hay experimentos que les dan la razón: parecen tener expresiones faciales que, además, dependen de la atención que les prestemos. Esta empatía los hace especialmente preparados para asistir a personas en problemas; es más, el análisis de sus cerebros permite predecir cuáles serán mejores acompañantes terapéuticos, basado sobre la actividad en ciertas áreas nerviosas. De paso, ese mismo análisis de actividad cerebral nos puede ayudar a saber qué está pensando Fido, como cuenta el neurocientífico Gregory Berns en el libro Cómo es ser un perro: se las ingenió para poner a los cachorros en un resonador magnético (no es nada fácil) y descubrió, para su beneplácito, que los cerebros perrunos responden con el mismo amor a la comida que a sus dueños (y a veces, ¡más a la imagen de sus dueños que a la de un buen hueso!).
Sacarlos a pasear, usarlos de estufa, mejorar nuestras perspectivas de seducción (¡probado científicamente!)., enfermarnos menos. Sí: entre las ventajas de tener un perro está la de un riesgo menor de mortalidad debida a trastornos cardiovasculares (sobre todo en los dueños solitarios). Seguramente, esto se deba a mayores interacciones sociales y a la necesidad de realizar actividad física y, de acuerdo con un estudio que se realizó en Suecia, hasta funciona mejor con razas cazadoras.
En fin, este mejor amigo del humano ha ayudado mucho a la ciencia. Y les gana por lejos a sus rivales felinos: una búsqueda muy simple en una base de datos científica arroja unos 330.000 trabajos de investigación publicados sobre perros, y bastante menos de la mitad para los gatos (unos 140.000). Aquí la eterna lucha tiene un claro ganador.
Mucha ciencia para el perro, entonces. Y prepárense, que 2019. es el año del cerdo.
Fuente: La Nación Revista.
SOC/GINT-LA NACION REVISTA:Las gracias perdidas, por Sergio Sinay
The following information is used for educational purposes only.
LA NACION REVISTA
Las gracias perdidas
Sergio Sinay
1 de abril de 2018
Fuente: LA NACION - Crédito: Enriquez
¿Qué es una virtud?, se pregunta el filósofo francés André Comte-Sponville en su Pequeño tratado de las grandes virtudes. Y, tras repasar el tema desde Aristóteles en adelante, se responde que una virtud es el esfuerzo por comportarse bien. Moralmente bien, es decir, hacia y con el otro, el prójimo, el próximo. Una virtud, concluye, es un valor moral encarnado, vivido, convertido en acto. Y subraya que las virtudes no se enseñan por los libros, sino por el ejemplo.
Si las virtudes se verifican en los actos cotidianos y se aprenden por el ejemplo, estamos ante un panorama preocupante. La gratitud (llamémosla también agradecimiento) es una virtud cuya desaparición progresiva y galopante es fácilmente verificable en la vida cotidiana. Pequeños y sencillos actos como abrir una puerta para que pase otra persona, esperar con el ascensor detenido a que llegue el vecino que acaba de entrar al edificio, ceder un asiento, alcanzar un salero o un servilletero parecen no merecer un gracias para muchas personas beneficiadas por esos gestos. Tampoco decirle esa breve palabra de siete letras a un mozo que sirvió el café, a alguien que cedió el paso en un molinete o, en fin, expresarla en las numerosas oportunidades que se presentan a lo largo de un día.
Las virtudes, dice Comte-Sponville, no caen por su peso. Se aprenden y se practican. Por lo tanto, es posible desconocerlas. Basta con no haber tenido ejemplos o con haberlos olvidado. Basta con haber perdido el hábito de practicarlas. Y eso es lo que parece estar ocurriendo. El desconocimiento de la palabra gracias y de lo que ella significa. Porque gracias indica que hemos recibido algo. Que se nos dio. Que se nos vio. Que se nos reconoció. Que alguien, a través de un mínimo gesto, nos dijo que existimos. Por todas estas razones, dar las gracias es un acto cuya profundidad y trascendencia va mucho más allá de una simple cuestión de urbanidad o de buenas costumbres, aunque también tenga que ver con esto.
El filósofo austríaco Josef Seifert, fundador de la Academia Internacional de Filosofía, con sede en Liechtenstein, enunció en unas jornadas pedagógicas los valores que considera esenciales para la exploración del sentido de nuestras vidas. El respeto, la gratitud, la paciencia, la humildad, el arrepentimiento y el perdón (juntos), la esperanza y el amor (juntos). De la gratitud dice que es fuente esencial para el conocimiento del sentido y de lo que hay de bueno en nuestras vidas. Lo cierto es que cualquiera de esos actos y gestos nombrados en el principio de esta columna, que en apariencia son nimios e intrascendentes, mejoran las vidas. Agradecer, dice Comte-Sponville, es recordar que algo ha sucedido. Y es recordarlo con alegría. Es que, en efecto, algo ha sucedido. Nos sirvieron un café, nos abrieron una puerta, esperaron a que llegáramos, nos cedieron el paso, nos ofrecieron un asiento, nos sonrieron, nos preguntaron si necesitábamos algo, levantaron y nos entregaron algo que se nos cayó. No son tonterías. Se trata del hilo invisible con que está bordada la convivencia humana.
¿Cuesta tanto, ante esa evidencia, decir simple y sencillamente gracias? Pareciera que sí, que cada vez más personas han extraviado esa palabra en sus vocabularios. Y como las palabras no son solo letras o sonidos, sino que también representan y crean, la pérdida de una de ellas, sobre todo de una que la escritora y terapeuta austríaca Elisabeth Lukas considera "un bálsamo para el alma", no solo empobrece a quien la extravió, sino que lastima a quien no la recibe. Mientras aún sea tiempo habrá que buscar las gracias perdidas hasta reencontrarlas. Sobran las oportunidades para hacerlo.
Fuente: La Nación Revista
LA NACION REVISTA
Las gracias perdidas
Sergio Sinay
1 de abril de 2018
Fuente: LA NACION - Crédito: Enriquez
¿Qué es una virtud?, se pregunta el filósofo francés André Comte-Sponville en su Pequeño tratado de las grandes virtudes. Y, tras repasar el tema desde Aristóteles en adelante, se responde que una virtud es el esfuerzo por comportarse bien. Moralmente bien, es decir, hacia y con el otro, el prójimo, el próximo. Una virtud, concluye, es un valor moral encarnado, vivido, convertido en acto. Y subraya que las virtudes no se enseñan por los libros, sino por el ejemplo.
Si las virtudes se verifican en los actos cotidianos y se aprenden por el ejemplo, estamos ante un panorama preocupante. La gratitud (llamémosla también agradecimiento) es una virtud cuya desaparición progresiva y galopante es fácilmente verificable en la vida cotidiana. Pequeños y sencillos actos como abrir una puerta para que pase otra persona, esperar con el ascensor detenido a que llegue el vecino que acaba de entrar al edificio, ceder un asiento, alcanzar un salero o un servilletero parecen no merecer un gracias para muchas personas beneficiadas por esos gestos. Tampoco decirle esa breve palabra de siete letras a un mozo que sirvió el café, a alguien que cedió el paso en un molinete o, en fin, expresarla en las numerosas oportunidades que se presentan a lo largo de un día.
Las virtudes, dice Comte-Sponville, no caen por su peso. Se aprenden y se practican. Por lo tanto, es posible desconocerlas. Basta con no haber tenido ejemplos o con haberlos olvidado. Basta con haber perdido el hábito de practicarlas. Y eso es lo que parece estar ocurriendo. El desconocimiento de la palabra gracias y de lo que ella significa. Porque gracias indica que hemos recibido algo. Que se nos dio. Que se nos vio. Que se nos reconoció. Que alguien, a través de un mínimo gesto, nos dijo que existimos. Por todas estas razones, dar las gracias es un acto cuya profundidad y trascendencia va mucho más allá de una simple cuestión de urbanidad o de buenas costumbres, aunque también tenga que ver con esto.
El filósofo austríaco Josef Seifert, fundador de la Academia Internacional de Filosofía, con sede en Liechtenstein, enunció en unas jornadas pedagógicas los valores que considera esenciales para la exploración del sentido de nuestras vidas. El respeto, la gratitud, la paciencia, la humildad, el arrepentimiento y el perdón (juntos), la esperanza y el amor (juntos). De la gratitud dice que es fuente esencial para el conocimiento del sentido y de lo que hay de bueno en nuestras vidas. Lo cierto es que cualquiera de esos actos y gestos nombrados en el principio de esta columna, que en apariencia son nimios e intrascendentes, mejoran las vidas. Agradecer, dice Comte-Sponville, es recordar que algo ha sucedido. Y es recordarlo con alegría. Es que, en efecto, algo ha sucedido. Nos sirvieron un café, nos abrieron una puerta, esperaron a que llegáramos, nos cedieron el paso, nos ofrecieron un asiento, nos sonrieron, nos preguntaron si necesitábamos algo, levantaron y nos entregaron algo que se nos cayó. No son tonterías. Se trata del hilo invisible con que está bordada la convivencia humana.
¿Cuesta tanto, ante esa evidencia, decir simple y sencillamente gracias? Pareciera que sí, que cada vez más personas han extraviado esa palabra en sus vocabularios. Y como las palabras no son solo letras o sonidos, sino que también representan y crean, la pérdida de una de ellas, sobre todo de una que la escritora y terapeuta austríaca Elisabeth Lukas considera "un bálsamo para el alma", no solo empobrece a quien la extravió, sino que lastima a quien no la recibe. Mientras aún sea tiempo habrá que buscar las gracias perdidas hasta reencontrarlas. Sobran las oportunidades para hacerlo.
Fuente: La Nación Revista
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