Word Choice for Journalists-Accuracy, Clarity & More

The following information is used for educational purposes only.

Word Choice



affect: (verb) means to influence. The flood will affect the harvest.
effect: (almost always a noun) means "result." The effect of the flood was frightening.
effect: (as a verb) means to cause. He will effect many changes in the agricultural rules.

allude: to make an indirect reference to something. President Clinton alluded to the problems of past Republican administrations when defending his record.
(Note: To refer to something means to mention it directly.)
elude: to escape or avoid detection. Newt Gingrich eluded the fashion police.

among: implies a "distribution" involving three or more persons or object that have no explicit relationship. The lottery money was divided among Oregon's five lucky winners.
between: refers to position or action of two persons or objects, and is also used if there is a "definite relation" between persons or objects. Between you and me, this building will never be completed. Negotiations have broken down between architects, builders and the owner.

anxious: afraid or worried. Sally was anxious about the championship game.
eager: excited. Sally was eager to play in the championship game.




accept: to receive. Gail Devers accepted the gold medal.
except: to exclude. Every swimmer received an Olympic medal except for Janet Evans.

aid: assistance. Students often ask their parents for aid.
aide: an assistant. A congressional aide said the senator was unavailable for comment.

because of: shows cause and effect. Because of a tuition increase, students were angry.
due to: use only with a linking verb. The riot at Johnson Hall was due to a tuition increase.

because: gives reason or cause for something. The bridge was closed because the river flooded.
since: denotes a period of time. The bridge has been closed since the river flooded.

compose: made up of other things, to create or put together (e.g., parts, ingredients). The car is composed of many mechanical and electrical systems.
comprise: takes in, includes or embraces other things, contains. The United States comprises 50 states.
Note: The whole comprises the parts -- the whole is never comprised of the parts.



compared to: to liken one thing to another type or category of things as in a metaphor. He compared playing goalie to being a drill sergeant.
compared with: to examine similarities and differences within the same type or category. We compared Big Macs with Whoppers.

convince: to be secure about a decision or principle. Jody Runge is convinced the Ducks will win the game.
persuade: to induce someone to do something or embrace an idea. Jody Runge persuaded the referee to call a foul.

complement: (noun or verb) denotes completeness or the process of supplementing something. Susan's Doc Marten's complement her leather jacket.
compliment: (noun or verb) denotes praise. Sean was proud of the compliments on his writing.

continual: a steady repetition. The senator's drinking was the source of continual rumors.
continuous: uninterrupted, unbroken. Ahead of them was a continuous stretch of desert.

discreet: prudent, circumspect. British royalty seem to have forgotten how to be discreet.
discrete: detached, separate. There have been six discrete incidents of plagiarism this year.




elicit: (verb) to bring out or draw forth. Her lecture on prison reform elicited a strong reaction.
illicit: (adjective) illegal or unlawful. Bob Packwood's illicit actions led to his downfall.

enormity: wickedness. The enormity of the crime was revealed in Technicolor.
enormousness: very great in size. The enormousness of the national debt boggles the mind.

fewer: refers to a number of indivdual items. Lisa made fewer free throws than Cindy.
less: refers to bulk, amount, sum, or period of time. Because of her injury, she had less time on the court than the other players

farther: physical distance. Sue kicked the soccer ball farther than any of her teammates.
further: extension of time or degree. The reporter will look further into the president's death.

hanged: (verb; conjugated hang, hanged and hanged) refers to people. The State of Oregon hanged the murderer for his crimes.
hung: (same verb; conjugated hang, hung and hung) refers to objects. The University of Oregon athletic department hung photos of women basketball players in the halls of Mac Court.





hangar: a building. The remnants of the plane are in the hangar.
hanger: something you hung your shirt on. There are never enough hangers in my closet.

if: a conjunction meaning "in the event that" or "on the condition that." If the Ducks keep playing well, they may play in post season games.
whether: a conjunction meaning "in case," "if it happens that" or "if it is so that." Bob Rodman asked whether the Ducks had won.

illusion: an unreal or false impression. The commercial created the illusion that the politician had told the truth about his past.
allusion: an indirect reference. Packwood made an allusion to his critics in Oregon.
elusive: tending to elude capture, perception or understanding. An informative, intelligent political commercial has proved elusive.

like: a preposition used to compare nouns or pronouns. Nicole runs like the wind.
as if: a conjunction used to introduce clauses. Nicole runs as if her life depends on it.




imply: to suggest or hint. Perot implied that he would run for president.
infer: to conclude from evidence. Reporters inferred that Perot would run as a third-party candidate.

media: (plural) in the sense of mass communication. The media are pressing for access to more government documents.
medium: (singular of media) AM radio may be the medium that has changed the most in the last five years.

more than: generally refers to relationships between figures and amounts. Tuition has increased more than 18 percent in the last two years.
over: generally refers to spatial relationships. The helicopter flew over the volcano.

notorious: to be widely and unfavorably known. Ted Bundy was a notorious killer.
famous: to be widely known. The Miami Dolphins signed the famous coach, Jimmy Johnson.




proven: use only as an adjective. This is a proven method to get good grades.
proved: past participle for the verb prove, which means to establish the truth of something. The game against Washington proved the Ducks' defense had a lot to learn.

regardless: without regard or unmindful. The couple hikes every weekend regardless of the weather.
irregardless: a dreaded double negative that has been snubbed by dictionaries nationwide.

reluctant: unwilling to act. Susan is reluctant to go to the dentist.
reticent: means unwilling to speak. Steven is reticent in public places.

to: a preposition meaning (among other things) as compared with. President Clinton compared the nation's debt to a swelling balloon.
with: a preposition meaning in the company of or alongside of. Susan went with her sister to the meeting.




towards: Don't even think about using this out-of-date word unless you're writing a poem in Olde English.
toward: This is the 20th Century word.

under way: two words in virtually all uses. Construction on Allen Hall is well under way.
underway: Use only as an adjective before a noun in the nautical sense. In other words, forget about it.

under: physically underneath. Several people sleep under the bridge at night.
less than: a lesser quantity or amount. I can go to the concert if the tickets are less than $5.00.



Sources: "Grammar for Journalists," E.L. Callihan
The American Heritage Dictionary
The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual
"When Words Collide," Kessler and McDonald.

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Accuracy

As journalists and writers, it is our responsibility to use language with sense and sensitivity.

Unintentionally sexist language:

Sexist language excludes or demeans one gender or another on the basis of sex. Because of the number of words that we use that are implicitly meant to include everyone, but explicitly exclude women, sexist language has come to be understood as language that excludes women.
◦Peace on Earth; good will to men.
◦All men are created equal.

The generic "He"

Just as "man" cannot refer to men-only and women-and-men-both, "he" cannot refer to a male person at certain times and both genders other times.

He = maleness whether you intend it or not.
◦A doctor should be kind to his patients. ◦In this example, we are talking about generic doctors; therefore we need an equally unrestricted gender reference. ◦A doctor should be kind to his or her patients. (awkward)
◦Doctors should be kind to their patients. (better)
◦A doctor should be kind to patients. (maybe best)


◦A child will be brave if he is encouraged to explore his world. ◦A child will be brave if he or she is encouraged to explore his or her world. (accurate but awkward)
◦Children will be brave if they areencouraged to explore their world. (better)
◦A child will be brave if encouraged to explore the world.(maybe better)





INSTEAD OF

USE





Man, men



person, people



mankind

people



founding fathers

founders, forebears



manpower

work force



to man (verb)

to staff, operate


Unintentionally racist language:

Race-centric language excludes or demeans a person or group of people on the basis of race. Because of the pervasiveness of racism in the United States (and worldwide) it is not surprising when a writer's judgment is affected by long-standing and insidious stereotypes. Our job as writers is not to be defensive and hostile to suggestions of non-inclusive language but rather to identify those stereotypes and remove them from our language.

PROBLEMS TO IDENTIFY AND ELIMINATE:

1. Identifying people unnecessarily by race.

A person's race is usually not a vital part of a story. If race is not the point of the story such as...

"Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win a Pulitzer Prize."

...then leave it out. Do not identify a person by his or her race if you would not do the same for a person of any race in the same situation.
◦"Barack Obama, the popular black senator, announced his intention to run for president."

Is as equally ridiculous as:
◦"Hillary Clinton, the popular white senator, announced her intention to run for president."

2. Reinforcing Stereotypes.

This problem is subtle and requires that a writer closely consider why he or she is including particular descriptions. Treating someone of a particular race as an exception is just as demeaning as an overt stereotype.
◦"hard working, even-tempered Mexican-American"
◦"assertive and outspoken Asian-American"
◦"articulate and well-spoken African-American"

3. Euro-centrism

Contrary to popular myth, white, European culture is not superior to all other cultures, nor is it the standard by which all other cultures should be judged. So be watchful for phrases like "culturally deprived" and "non-white," which imply just that.

4. Group names

Language and group names change all of the time. In the past, names for members of various racial and ethnic groups were given to them by people outside the group. These terms, though widely used, were often seen as demeaning by the group itself.

For example: In the early 20th century, "colored" was an "accepted" group name for black Americans. In an effort to eliminate the demeaning word from "popular" usage, black Americans pressed hard to be called, "Negro." In the sixties "black" and "afro-American" were the terms of choice. Today many people prefer "African-American."

The point is that as journalist, we must be aware of what various racial groups call themselves and want to be called publicly and use those terms accordingly.

Unintentionally ageist language:

Ageist language demeans a person based on a his or her age. Stereotypes casting old people as feeble and cranky and teen-agers as irresponsible and inarticulate are not only insulting, they are often inaccurate.

Reinforcing stereotypes: Just as writers can reinforce racial stereotypes by pointing out the "exceptions" so can they reinforce age stereotypes.
◦Still quick-witted, Sally celebrated her 80th birthday.
◦A well-mannered and articulate sophomore, Steve Smith was a favorite among his teachers.

The solution: Write about people as individuals, not as representatives of, or exceptions to, their age group.

Writing about disability

Be on the lookout for language that demeans a person based on a disability.

When writing about people with physical or mental limitations, ask them how they want to be referred to. And once again, if it doesn't have anything to do with the story, leave it out.
◦Susan Jones, who has epilepsy, opened a clothing store.
◦Bill Smith, who has no identifiable physical impairments, opened a gourmet restaurant

People are not their handicaps. People have handicaps.
◦Never write: Bill Smith, an asthmatic, climbed Mount Everest.
◦Instead write: Bill Smith, who has asthma, climbed Mount Everest.


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Clarity


As writers, our words are our tools. Therefore, with every word, phrase, clause and sentence we write, we should be asking, "Is this the right tool for the job?" Is the way we have written a sentence the clearest, most concise way to express what we are trying to say?

There are several danger zones to be mindful of as we are writing for clarity, conciseness and coherence.

WORD CHOICE:

The words we choose should communicate just what we mean to communicate--nothing more; nothing less. As noted in "When Words Collide," choosing the correct verb is a matter of grammar; but choosing the right verb is a matter of conciseness and clarity.


Avoid UP
◦Bob appointed his uncle to head up the committee. ◦Bob appointed his uncle to head the committee.

◦The negligent father finally faced up to his responsibilities. ◦The negligent father finally faced his responsibilities.

◦His incessant questions only served to slow up the meeting. ◦His incessant questions only served to slow the meeting.


Avoid those verbs requiring "up" to complete their meaning. These verbs are not wrong; but they are weak.
◦She suspected the student was making up the excuse. ◦She suspected the student was fabricating the excuse.

◦Business has been picking up since the street opened. ◦Business has improved since the street opened.


"VERBIZING NOUNS"

Adding the suffix "-ize" to any noun is usually unnecessary, and it often serves to confuse the reader. Nonetheless, some "-ize" words are useful and provide a particular meaning.

Before tacking "-ize" onto a noun, subject it to these three tests.
◦Is it listed in the dictionary as an acceptable word?
◦Does it have a unique meaning? (e.g. pasteurize)
◦Does it have a sound that it not displeasing?

THAT


That serves a range of grammatical functions.
◦Adjective: That man is going to fall off of his bike.
◦Demonstrative pronoun: That is the last thing he will do.
◦Relative pronoun: Harvard is the university that he wants to attend.
◦Conjunction: My brother admitted that he is always wrong.

As a pronoun & conjunction, that can often be eliminated.
◦My brother admitted he is always wrong.
◦Harvard is the university he wants to attend.

Other times removing that requires a sentence be re-written.
◦She treasured the boat that was built by her father.
◦She treasured the boat her father built.

To determine if that is necessary, ask these two questions:
◦1. Can that be eliminated with no change in the meaning of the sentence?
◦2. Can the clause introduced by that be expressed more concisely?


MISPLACED WORDS


A modifier must point directly and clearly to what it modifies. Place the modifier next to or as close as possible to what it is modifying.

Problem modifiers: only, nearly, almost, just, scarcely, even, hardly and merely.


ONLY
◦Only the coach lead the team to victory. ◦No one else can lead them.

◦The coach can only lead the team to victory. ◦The coach can't do anything more than lead them.

◦The coach can lead only the team to victory. ◦The coach can't lead anyone else.

◦Just the swimmer missed her chance to compete in the race. ◦No one else missed a chance.


JUST

◦The swimmer just missed her chance to compete in the race. ◦The swimmer barely or recently missed her chance

◦The swimmer missed her chance just to compete in the race. ◦The swimmer missed her chance simply to compete.

◦The swimmer missed her chance to compete in just the race. ◦The swimmer missed only once chance to compete: the race. Or she missed the chance to limit her competing to one event: the race.


MISPLACED MODIFIERS


Phrases and clauses should also be placed next to or near what they modify.

◦Several of the children were confused by math in the class.
◦Rising to their feet, the fight song roared from the fans.
◦Joe found a twenty-dollar bill walking home.

To learn more about misplaced modifiers, visit The Tongue Untied Blog discussion.


DANGLING MODIFIERS


A modifier "dangles" when what it is supposed to modify is not part of the sentence.

◦Before going on vacation, the bills need to be paid.
◦After cutting the grass, the garden was weeded.

SPLITTING AUXILIARY AND MAIN VERBS AND SPLITTING INFINITIVES


Split verbs lead to incoherence. In most cases, it is best to keep auxiliary verbs next to the main verb and to avoid splitting infinitives.
◦The students who have been, for more than a week, waiting for tickets were disappointed with the news.
◦The burglar was, as far as the detectives could determine, hiding somewhere in the building.
◦Splitting infinitives, though common practice is grammatically incorrect and makes for sloppy writing.
◦For the information to truly be valuable, he will need to verify the source.
◦Sally intended to fully explain the proposal, but she missed the meeting.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD


A mood of the verb (to be) that expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact or highly improbable (a wish).

It is also used to express: DOUBTS, UNCERTAINTIES, REGRETS, DESIRES.

With subjunctive mood, use WERE instead of WAS.
◦If I were rich, I would still teach grammar
◦The students looked at me as if I were insane.
◦She wishes she were home in bed instead of in class.

BUT: --If the ex-convict was involved in the robbery, he
probably has left town.


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Conciseness

Make your words count. Don't muddy your writing with jargon, unclear construction and repetition.

REDUNDANCIES AND WORDINESS



Mutual cooperation

cooperation



Completely destroyed

destroyed



Could care less

couldn't care less



consensus of opinion

consensus



refer back

refer




thinking to myself

thinking



needless to say

then why say it?



at the present time

now



despite the fact that

although




















INTENSIFIERS

Avoid overused intensifiers such as: Very, Really, Truly, So, Completely, Totally, Positively, Perfectly.

Re-write for conciseness and description. For example:



very hungry

famished



really tired

exhausted



perfectly happy

content



so silly

ridiculous



truly angry

irate


SENTENCE FRAGMENT:

A group of words lacking one or more of the following: a subject, a predicate, a complete thought (e.g, a dependent clause).
◦Although he passed the test.
◦"Now his concern is to be a normally functioning human being again. Without the headaches, dizziness, memory loss and lethargy that have been part of his life for too long."

RUN-ON SENTENCE:

Lacks proper punctuation e.g, Comma Splice:
◦The professor dismissed the class, the students cheered.

Options to fix run-ons: 1) Create two sentences 2) Use a semi-colon 3) Use a coordinating conjunction

OVERSUBORDINATED SENTENCE:

Caused by several dependent clauses or one long dependent clause at the start of a sentence. Problem: delays main idea.
◦Even though I felt sick and discouraged at the thought of taking the exam, I passed the LSDT.

PASSIVE & ACTIVE VOICE

The "VOICE" of a sentence indicates the form of the verb.

PASSIVE VOICE: The subject is acted upon by the verb.
◦The test was passed by the student.
◦The meeting was led by the president.
◦The play was canceled.

ACTIVE VOICE: The subject is performing an action. Think: Subject-Verb-Object
◦The student passed the test.
◦The president led the meeting.
◦The director canceled the play.

NOTE: Use of the verb to be (e.g., is, was) does not necessarily mean the passive voice.
◦She was managing the store. (active)
◦The store was managed by her. (passive)
◦She was tired. (indicative)

TIP: Avoid unnecessary introductory phrases and clauses
◦It has been shown by numerous studies that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.
◦Numerous studies have shown that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.

CORRECTING PASSIVE VOICE:
◦Find the verb in the sentence
◦Ask who or what is performing the action.
◦Construct the sentence to that the "actor" (subject) performs the action.

Our conclusion was ignored by the committee.
◦Verb: ignored
◦Actor: committee
◦Re-write: The committee ignored our conclusions.

The infant was rescued from the blaze by his mother.
◦Verb: rescued
◦Actor: mother
◦Re-write: The infant's mother rescued him from the blaze.
◦ If we write it: His mother rescued the infant from the blaze. "His" is unclear as a pronoun reference.

WHEN PASSIVE VOICE IS JUSTIFIED:

The recipient of the action is more important (prominent) than the performer of the action.
◦President Clinton was heckled by an unidentified comedian posing as a journalist.

The actor or performer of the action is unknown, difficult to identify or irrelevant.
◦The gift was damaged during shipping. ◦NOTE: In this case, the indicative mood (was) is used to state merely a condition or realistic explanation, not an implausible situation.


PARALLEL STRUCTURE (PARALLELISM):

Don't mix elements in a phrase or series.
◦He enjoys books, movies and driving his car. (NO
◦He enjoys reading books, watching movies and driving his car. (YES)

Don't mix verbals (e.g., gerunds and infinitives).
◦He believes in using force and then to resort to diplomacy only if all else fails. (NO)
◦He believes in using force and then resorting to diplomacy only if all else fails. (YES)

Don't mix tenses or voice.
◦Workers who were consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and had lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)
◦Workers who are consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and have lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)

Don't mix singular and plural subjects.
◦One should study; students should know that. (NO)
◦Students should know that they should study. (YES)

Don't use a dependent clause inappropriately.
◦The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian Physics and that critical thinking is at the heart of scientific study. (NO)
◦The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian physics and the importance of critical thinking in scientific study. (YES)

Be consistent with grammatical patterns in a sentence (e.g., verb-adjective-noun pattern of three phrases)
◦He vowed to decrease federal taxes, increase social services and strengthen foreign relations.


Source: www.grammaruntied.com